1607
Founding of Jamestown, the first successful English colony in the Americas.
1776
Signing of the Declaration of Independence and the formal beginning of the American Revolution.
1787
Meeting of delegates from 12 states to draft a new form of government in Philadelphia (Consitutional Convention).
1803
Purchase of Louisiana from France nearly doubles the size of the United States, stretching its borders from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rockies.
1861-65
The Civil War between the Union and the Confederacy began with the firing on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor shortly after Lincoln's first inauguration as President in 1861. It lasted four long years and caused more American deaths than any other war in history.
Abolitionist Movement
The abolitionist movement began in the Revolutionary era, partially in response to the inhumane treatment of slaves and partially in an effort to remove blacks from white society. The movement in the late 1700s concentrated on freeing the slaves as a humane act. Quakers in Pennsylvania established the first anti-slavery society in the world in 1775. Interest in returning slaves to Africa resulted in the formation of the American Colonization Society in 1817. The Republic of Liberia, established in 1822 on the west coast of Africa, served as a destination for approximately 15,000 slaves freed and returned. However, most slaves considered Africa a foreign culture and sought freedom and a home in America. In the 1830s American abolitionists sought to follow the example set in the West Indies by the British who freed the slaves in 1833. The religious revivals of the Second Great Awakening also inspired abolitionists to speak out against the sin of slavery. Abolitionists published anti-slavery publications including pamphlets and newspapers. Supporters of William Lloyd Garrison, a vocal abolitionist and publisher of the newspaper The Liberator, formed the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833. African Americans played a key role in the abolitionist movement, most notably Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth. Realizing they needed a political voice, abolitionists supported the Liberty Party in 1840, the Free Soil party in 1848, and the Republican party in the 1850s. Abolitionists realize their goal with the passage of the 13th Amendment.
Absolute and Relative Chronology
Absolute chronology depends on knowing the precise date including the day, month and/or year of an event. To sequence events in absolute chronology means to organize them in an order--that is, from oldest to most recent. Relative chronology depends less on specific dates and more on relationships of events. To sequence events, individuals, and time periods, students must understand past, present, and future time. Students must also be able to identify the beginning, middle, and end of an event or story. Students are expected to structure a story, creating their own sequence by developing a topic from its beginning to its conclusion. Students are expected to create and interpret timelines, identify intervals of time, and order events in the sequence of occurrence and in relation to other events.
Amendments to the U.S. Constitution
Article V of the U.S. Constitution outlines the procedures for making changes or amending the document. The delegates to the convention knew that the constitution needed flexibility to survive. Amendments are proposed by two-thirds vote of both houses of the U.S. Congress or by a convention called by Congress at the request of two-thirds of the states. Proposed amendments must be ratified by three-fourths of the states before they are adopted. Only 27 amendments have been added since the U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1787. Two of the most recent include the 26th Amendment, adopted in 1971, which reduced the voting age to 18 years, and the 27th Amendment, adopted in 1992, which addresses congressional pay raises. Each amendment is significant but several are more central to the daily lives of citizens than others. These include the Bill of Rights (1791), the first ten amendments to the Constitution; the 13th Amendment (1865) which abolished slavery; the 14th Amendment (1868) which guaranteed civil rights to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and protection of their rights by due process of the law; the 15th Amendment (1870) which extended the right to vote to black citizens of the United States; and the 19th Amendment (1920) which gave women the right to vote.
American Advantages in the American Revolution
Included fighting on home turf (knew the land), an inspiring reason to fight, and local supplies.
American Revolution
The American Revolution was the war of independence fought between Britain and 13 of its colonies in North America. The revolution began in April 1775 when British troops faced the Minutemen at Concord and Lexington, Massachusetts. Many factors led to the Revolution and the colonists were divided, either supporting Britain or independence. Those loyal to Britain were called Loyalists and those opposed to British rule were called Patriots. The Declaration of Independence, approved by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, itemized the major causes of the revolt against British rule: 1) the right of the people to control government, 2) the acts of the British Parliament which forced the colonies to do things against their will, and 3) the frustration caused by repeatedly being ignored by the British. The British sought to control the colonies by capturing significant ports. Boston fell in March, 1776, but attempts to capture New York proved unsuccessful, and British General William Howe failed to support General Burgoyne's push south from Canada. The British forces under Burgoyne met defeat at the Battle of Saratoga on October 17, 1777, a battle which shifted momentum to the colonists and convinced the French to support the colonial cause. The Revolution became a world war after France, Spain, and then Holland declared war on Great Britain. France provided money, equipment, most of the naval power, and nearly one-half of the armed forces used by the colonists between 1778 and 1783. Fighting moved into the southern colonies and the interior along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Washington's defeat of Cornwallis at the Battle of Yorktown on October 19, 1781, marked the final conflict of the war, but the Treaty of Paris was not signed until 1783. In it, Britain recognized the independence of the United States.
Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution, was adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1781 during the Revolution. It provided guidance to government for seven years and gave Congress limited authority to make laws and to draw up treaties with other nations. The Articles were limited in providing solutions to many challenges facing the new Republic because the states held most of the power, and Congress lacked the power to tax, regulate trade, or control coinage. In 1787 the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles, but instead the delegates constructed a new constitution.
Bessemer Steel Process
The Bessemer steel process is the process of removing impurities from iron to make steel. Steel is less brittle and stronger than iron. Industry needed steel but was limited by the small quantity that could be manufactured using traditional methods to remove impurities. In the 1850s, British inventor Henry Bessemer discovered that a blast of hot air directly on melted iron reduced the impurities in iron. As a result, steel manufacturing increased nearly 20 fold during the era of the Industrial Revolution in America. Steel bridges, steel rails for railroads, and the production of automobiles were major technological achievements. Steel reinforcements in skyscrapers aided urbanization, and increased production of household appliances brought steel into the home.
Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution, ratified in 1791. The 1st Amendment protects several fundamental rights of U.S. citizens: freedom of religion, of speech, and of the press, and the rights to assemble and to petition. The next seven amendments guarantee other freedoms including the right to a fair trial and the right to bear arms. Homes are protected from search without just cause, citizens are protected from the imposition of housing troops during peacetime, and those accused of crimes are entitled to fair treatment before the law. The 9th Amendment guarantees that people retain rights not enumerated in the Constitution and the 10th amendment limits federal power by granting to the states all powers not specifically assigned by the Constitution to the national government.
British Advantages in the American Revolution
Well-trained troops, powerful navy, 1/3 of Americans were loyalists, 4 times as many people, and a single, well-established government.
Causes and Effects of the Civil War
Sectionalism is loyalty to local interests instead of national concerns. In the United States, the differences between northern, southern, and western areas increased throughout the early 1800s. Different cultures and business practices existed in the three sections of the country and these concerns often conflicted. While farming was central to the livelihoods in all areas, northerners were more involved in manufacturing and commerce; capital was invested in factories and transportation. Southerners were more dependent on cash-crop agriculture, growing tobacco, sugar, or cotton; capital was invested in slaves and in overseas markets. Westerners depended on cheap land for expansion and good transportation networks to remain in touch with eastern business. Political conflict erupted in the 1820s over issues of internal improvements, the sale of public lands, tariffs, state's rights, and slavery. These sectional conflicts contributed to the start of the American Civil War (1861-1865). A civil war is a war fought between factions or sections within a country. The war exacted considerable tolls on northerners and southerners alike but the South suffered great physical destruction and human loss as a result of the carnage of battle. The North as the military victor realized economic and political dominance of the nation in the years after the war. The South remained behind the North economically, culturally, and socially into the mid-1900s as a result of several factors. The poverty of the South continued for generations due to the agricultural system of sharecropping and tenancy, small expenditures for education, the suppression of blacks which prevented them from serving fully as wage earners and contributors to society, and limited industrial development. Attempts to reconstruct southern government failed and military occupation of the South by national troops ended in 1877 when Democrats returned to power. Freed slaves gained citizenship and political representation as the result of a series of amendments to the U.S. Constitution passed between 1865 and 1870 but these rights eroded in the 1890s as disfranchisement and segregation became legal and racial violence increased.
Checks and Balances
The U.S. Constitution authorizes each branch of government to share its powers with the other branches and thereby check their activities and power. The President can veto legislation passed by Congress, but Congress can override the veto. The Senate confirms major appointments made by the President, and the courts may declare acts passed by Congress as unconstitutional.
Citizenship
To have citizenship is to be an official member of a politically defined region. A citizen owes allegiance to his or her country and expects to be protected by the government and from unfair use of governmental power. A "good citizen" supports his or her government, obeys the law, and functions in the best interest of all the citizens. The term "citizen" can have broader meanings. Students can be citizens of their classroom entitled to protection by their student government. Citizens can be natural born or naturalized. In most cases, when naturalized, they vow their allegiance to their adopted country and cease being legal citizens of their homeland.
Civic Particiption
Civic participation is being concerned with and involved in the public affairs of a community, state, nation, or world.
Civic Virtue
Civic virtue refers to the qualities that are associated with a "good citizen" who loves and wants to serve his or her country.
Civil Disobedience
The act of peacefully disobeying laws that one considers to be unjust for the purpose of demonstrating protest against the laws.
Commerce
The exchange of goods and services (trade).
Concord
Colonists forced the British to retreat back to Boston on April 19th, 1775 when General Gage came to seize a store of arms being kept by colonists.
Continental Congress
The Continental Congress was a meeting (in Philadelphia) of representatives from the various American colonies to decide how to respond to British colonial policies such as the Intolerable Acts. Eventually, the Continental Congress voted to declare independence from Britain in July of 1776 and acted as the American governing body during the American Revolution.
Cotton Gin
Invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, the cotton gin allowed cotton to be cleaned 1000 times faster than by hand. The cotton gin made the growing of cotton profitable, encouraging Southern planters to buy more land and more slaves in order to grow more cotton. In this way, the cotton gin encouraged the growth of slavery in the South.
Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence is a document adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. It established the 13 colonies as independent states, free from rule by Great Britain. The committee appointed to write the Declaration of Independence included Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, and Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson wrote the majority of the declaration. In the Preamble, Jefferson explained that it was necessary to list the reasons why the colonies sought their own government. In three sections Jefferson outlined the reasons: people have the right to control their own government; the British government and King used their power unjustly to control the colonies; and the colonies had tried to avoid separating from Britain, but Britain refused to cooperate. The most famous passage concerns the right to govern: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among men, deriving their just power from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government. . . "
Declaration of Sentiments
Written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and presented/ratified at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. The Declaration of Sentiments is modeled after the Declaration of Independence and argues for equality of the sexes.
Democracy
Means "rule by the people." In a democracy, the power of government is derived (gotten from) the consent of its citizens. Voting is one way that citizens in a democracy exercise their governing power.
Democratic
Ensuring that all people have the same rights.
Dred Scott v. Sandford
Dred Scott v. Sandford was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1857 which confirmed the status of slaves as property rather than citizens. Chief Justice Roger Taney wrote that a slave could not be heard in federal courts because he was not a citizen and had no protection under the Constitution. Also, Congress had no authority over slavery in the territories, and upon statehood, each territory would determine whether it would be a slave state or a free state.
Due Process
Fair rules in all cases brought to trial. When someone is accused of a crime, he or she is entitled to due process, which includes right to an attorney, right to a jury trial, right to a speedy trial, etc.
Emancipation Proclamation
Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, to go into effect on January 1, 1863. It declared that all slaves in the rebellious Confederate states would be free. These included slaves in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. Following the proclamation, many slaves in these states walked away from plantations and sought protection from Union forces. The proclamation did not apply to slaves living in border states or to areas in the South occupied by federal troops. As Union troops moved into new areas of the Confederacy, slaves in those areas would be freed. All slaves were not freed until the ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865.
English Bill of Rights
In 1689, King William and Queen Mary accepted the English Bill of Rights which guaranteed certain rights to English citizens and declared that elections for Parliament would happen frequently. The document followed the Glorious Revolution in which the English people forced absolute monarch James II to leave the country. William and Mary then assumed rule. By agreeing to the English Bill of Rights, they supported a limited monarchy, a system in which they shared their power with Parliament and the people, and did not have absolute power, as James II had sought. The influence of the English Bill of Rights can be seen in the Bill of Rights to the U.S. Constitution.
Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement concentrated in France during the 1700s. A group of philosophers including John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet), sought to apply the rigors of scientific inquiry to study human society. They developed rational laws to describe social behavior and applied their findings in support of human rights and liberal economic theories.
Erie Canal
Canal built between the Great Lakes and the Hudson River. This canal reduced shipping time and cost between the Ohio River Valley and New York City. New York's importance as a commercial center (center of trade) increased dramatically.
Federalism
Federalism is the distribution of power between a federal government and the states within a union.
Federalist Papers
After the delegates to the Philadelphia Convention finished writing the U.S. Constitution, each state elected delegates to a ratification convention. Ratification was required by nine of the 13 states in order for the constitution to take effect. People were divided over issues of the extent of power of the Constitution, the degree to which the rights of states were protected, and the degree to which the rights of citizens were protected. Those favoring the new form of government, which divided power between a strong central government and the states, were called Federalists. Those seeking greater power for states were called Anti-Federalists. In an effort to sway opinion and get the Constitution approved, three leading Federalists wrote a series of 85 essays which explained the new government and the division of power. Published as The Federalist, the series was written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. For instance, The Federalist, No. 10 (1787) defines the republican form of government which Federalists envisioned and the process of electing representatives to Congress.
Federalists and Anti-Federalists
The adoption of the U.S. Constitution was not an easy process. Citizens disagreed over the way the document divided power between the states and the national government, the degree to which the rights of states were protected, and the degree to which the rights of citizens were protected. Those favoring ratification of the Constitution and adoption of the federalist form of government were called Federalists. Those opposed to the Constitution because they feared the power of the national government in the new federal system were called Anti-Federalists. Anti-Federalists were also concerned that if the national government could overrule state decisions, the protection of the liberty of individuals would be at risk. Patrick Henry and George Mason were leading Anti-Federalists. Henry was so opposed to the process that he did not even attend the convention which drafted the Constitution. Thomas Jefferson favored some aspects of the Constitution but was concerned about the lack of protection for the rights of states and the absence of support for individual rights. He supported the inclusion of a Bill of Rights. In an effort to sway opinion and get the Constitution ratified, three leading Federalists -- James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay -- published their views in The Federalist , a series of 85 newspaper essays which have become a classic of American political thought.
First Amendment Freedoms
The First Amendment guarantees some basic individual liberties: freedom of speech, freedom of petition, freedom peaceful assembly (gather and meet peacefully), freedom of religion, freedom of the press.
First and Second Great Awakenings
The Great Awakening occurred in the 1730s and 1740s in response to inflexible Puritan doctrine. A lay ministry developed which preached personal salvation by good works in contrast to predestination as preached by Puritans. Others, led by Jonathan Edwards, urged believers to develop a personal relationship with God to gain their personal salvation. Ministers spread the word through revival meetings. Hundreds were "saved" and declared their trust in God without needing the clergy to channel their prayers. The Great Awakening revitalized American religion by adding emotion. Missionary work developed in an effort to spread salvation to Indians and slaves. In the early 1800s, the second Great Awakening erupted as those favoring the personal and emotional approach associated with evangelical faiths conflicted with those seeking more rational beliefs. The second Great Awakening reinvigorated church membership and furthered humanitarian efforts including abolitionism, prison reform, the temperance movement, and women's suffrage. More people participated in it than in the first Great Awakening, meeting outdoors under open tents to hear emotional preachers who "rode the circuit" promoting personal conversion. These camp meetings contributed to numerous conversions and vows to change wayward behavior. Membership in Baptist and Methodist churches increased most significantly.
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut
First written constitution outlining a form of government in the American colonies.
Generalizations
Generalizations are statements about relationships between and among concepts. They organize and summarize information obtained from the analysis of facts. A generalization is usually a broad assertion that something is always true. A fact, on the other hand, is a truth only about a particular incident or case. Here is a generalization: The nature of democracy in the United States continually evolves as society grows and changes. Here is a fact which supports it: Women received the right to vote in 1924.
Geographic Distributions and Patterns
Geographers are interested in the location of things on Earth, that is, where things are located, how they are distributed, and what relationships exist between things separated by distance. Sometimes things are distributed randomly across the surface of Earth. Other times a pattern is apparent in the distribution. That helps us to understand the forces that affect distribution. Consider the location of key industries, cities, types of agriculture--all of these things are distributed (located) somewhere, and show a pattern. Industries are located near resources or near markets. Cities are often located at vital transportation crossroads. The types of crops grown depend upon physical conditions as well as access to markets and transportation. Noting distribution and pattern helps us to understand why things are where they are.
Gettysburg Address
During the Civil War, on November 19, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln traveled to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, to dedicate a national cemetery at the site of the Battle of Gettysburg. Three sentences excerpted from his short speech capture the spirit of liberty and morality ideally held by citizens of a democracy. That ideal was threatened by the Civil War. Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. . . . . . . It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion--that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain--that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom--and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Gibbons v. Ogden
In Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), Chief Justice John Marshall of the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution gave control of interstate commerce to the U.S. Congress, not the individual states through which a route passed. The ruling responded to an effort by the state of New York to accept a monopoly to operate steamboat traffic between New York and New Jersey.
Great Compromise
Roger Sherman's plan at the Constitutional Convention for a two-house legislature, one of which would have equal representation (Senate) and the other would have representation based on population (House of Representatives).
Grievances Against Britain
A grievance is a complaint that "grieves" someone. Colonists were "grieved" by British colonial policies such as the Quartering Act, the Stamp Act, the Tea Act, the Townshend Acts, and the Intolerable Acts.
Individual Rights
Many opposed the Constitution in 1787 because they believed it did not offer adequate protection of individual rights. The Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, were created to correct this. The individual rights protected in the Bill of Rights include economic rights related to property, political rights related to freedom of speech and press, and personal rights related to bearing arms and maintaining private residences. The structure of the U.S. Constitution allows for adaptation based on changing public opinion and the need to protect individual rights. For instance, debates over the institution of slavery raised concerns about property and property protection afforded by the U.S. Constitution. In the decision Dred Scott v. Sandford, the Supreme Court ruled that slaves were property and that the Missouri Compromise, which prohibited slavery in certain parts of the United States, was unconstitutional in that it deprived people of property, their slaves. As public opinion changed, voters amended the Constitution to free slaves, to protect their rights, and to extend their right to vote.
Industrial Revolution
New sources of power including the steam engine freed manufacturers to experiment with new ways to make products. Steam power was more reliable than water power and allowed expansion of machine production. A period of rapid industrial growth resulted, starting in Britain in the 1700s and then spreading around the world as more countries adopted mass production. Handmade goods were quickly replaced by less expensive machine-made goods. The production of cloth by machines revolutionized the textile industry. It also changed the nature of supply because more goods were produced faster and cheaper, the nature of demand because the product was more affordable, and the nature of work. Factory laborers replaced craftsmen and home production. The expansion of mechanized production in the United States began after the Civil War and peaked in the 1920s just before the Great Depression. This is considered a second Industrial Revolution. The demand for raw materials and labor to maintain production led to exploitation of the natural environment and of workers
Interchangeable Parts
Invented by Eli Whitney and first used in the manufacture of muskets. It made possible the development of the factory system and the assembly line. It increased the rate of production and reduced the cost of producing goods.
Internal Improvements
During the 1800s the United States made many internal improvements in order to connect the various regions of the country and to create new markets for trade. Among these are toll roads, canals, and railroads. While the West and the North favored internal improvements for the purpose of expanding trade, the South disliked how expensive these improvements were and preferred using her many rivers for transportation.
Judicial Review
The three branches of government -- legislative, executive and judicial --were established to balance power, but the U.S. Constitution is the supreme law. The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting and applying laws and ensuring that they are constitutional. In the early 1800s the Supreme Court established the principle of judicial review. Acting within the powers of Article III, the judicial branch strengthened federal authority over state and private authority when the issue threatened rights established in the Constitution. Chief Justice John Marshall ruled in Marbury v. Madison (1803) that a law passed by Congress in 1789 was unconstitutional. Marshall stressed that "the Constitution is superior to any ordinary act of legislature. . . and must govern."
Lexington
First act of armed resistance against the British occured here on the morning of April 19th, 1775 when the British marched through town on their way to Concord to seize a store of arms.
Limited Government
In a limited government everyone, including all authority figures, must obey the laws. Constitutions, statements of rights, or other laws define the limits of those in power so they cannot take advantage of their elected, appointed, or inherited positions. In an unlimited government, control is placed solely with the ruler and his/her appointees, and there are no limits imposed on his/her authority.
Louisiana Purchase
Purchased from Napoleon in 1803, the Louisiana Purchase roughly doubled the size of the United States, extending its western border to the Rocky Mountains.
Magna Carta
The Magna Carta is the cornerstone of English justice and law. King John, who ruled between 1199 and 1216 AD, angered the English nobility and commoners alike by his lack of military prowess and his heavy taxation to pay a large national debt. Members of the nobility, the archbishop of Canterbury, and the Earl of Pembroke forced King John to sign the Magna Carta in 1215. It declared that the king and government were bound by the same law as other citizens of England. It contained the antecedents of the ideas of due process of law and the right to a fair and speedy trial that are included in the protection offered by the U.S. Bill of Rights. The English viewed it as a guarantee of law and justice.
Manifest Destiny
"Manifest destiny" was a popular expression in the 1840s. Many believed that the United States was destined to secure territory from "sea to sea," from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. This rationale drove the acquisition of territory in the 1840s as President James K. Polk attempted to declare the parallel of 5440' as the northern boundary of the United States. Britain initially refused, but the nations compromised in 1846 and the United States acquired the Oregon territory. The United States also secured a vast territory in the southwest following the Mexican War in 1848. Mexico ceded all claims north of the Rio Grande which included present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming.
Marbury v. Madison
(See judicial review) Marbury v. Madison was the first judgment by the Supreme Court which supported the federal system of government. In 1803, Chief Justice John Marshall, a Federalist, upheld and strengthened the authority of the federal judiciary. He established the principle of judicial review, the power of the judiciary to determine that a law can be declared unconstitutional.
Mayflower Compact
The Mayflower Compact was drafted in 1620 prior to settlement by the Pilgrims at Plymouth Bay in Massachusetts. It declared that the 41 males who signed it agreed to accept majority rule and participate in a government in the best interest of all members of the colony. While not a constitution, the agreement set the precedent for later documents outlining commonwealth rule. Settlers quickly established town meetings as a forum to develop their own laws, a positive step toward self-rule.
McCulloch v. Maryland
In 1819, Chief Justice John Marshall continued to define the limits of the U. S. Constitution and of the authority of the federal and state governments. Maryland was opposed to the establishment of a national bank and challenged the authority of the federal government to establish one. The Supreme Court ruled that the power of the federal government was supreme over that of the states and that the states could not interfere. This decision supported the concept that the Constitution was the supreme law of the land.
Mechanization of Agriculture
The mechanization of agriculture occurred as farmers replaced human and animal power on farms and ranches with machines. The gas-powered tractor replaced horses and mules on farms throughout the United States beginning in the 1920s. The tractors increased productivity but also increased the debt in which farmers operated. In addition to the horses, hired men were also replaced by machinery. As farmers spent more on equipment and maintenance agricultural prices dropped due to oversupply. Legislation proposed by Congress to support agricultural prices was twice vetoed by President Calvin Coolidge. In the 1920s, one farm in four was sold for debt or taxes. As a result, farmers moved to growing urban areas in search of work and the migration from rural to urban areas increased.
Mercantilism
Mercantilism is an economic theory which states that a nation's wealth is based on the amount of gold and silver bullion in its treasury. The theory drove economic exchange throughout Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries. Nations accumulated wealth in several ways. Explorers sought gold and silver deposits which they could mine. Trade offered another method to accumulate the bullion (gold or silver formed into bars, ingots, or plates). Generating revenue through trade depended on maintaining a favorable balance, that is, exporting more than a nation imported. In a mercantilist system, government played a central role in regulating trade by imposing restrictions on trade. As the production of goods for exchange increased, governments took a more active role in industrial development. New crafts and trades provided work for the idle and lined the pockets of mercantilists who made money by importing raw products and exporting finished goods at significantly higher costs. Those who sought to participate in trade and industry needed government backing to succeed, especially in the oceanic trade. The East India Company was founded in 1600 by the English government and merchants intent on trading with the East. The American colonies contributed to the English, French, and Spanish mercantilist systems by providing raw products and markets for manufactured goods. The Spanish sought to control the gold and silver supplies held by Native American civilizations in Mexico and Peru; the fur trade in North America resulted in significant revenue for French mercantilists; and settlement benefited English manufacturers who sold finished products to colonists. Buying from a colony enabled the mother country to keep bullion within the empire. Mercantilism was attacked by Adam Smith and others who supported laissez faire ("let them do as they see fit") exchange. This new economic theory opposed regulation by the "visible hand" of government and instead viewed commerce as driven by the invisible hand of personal initiative.
Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine was a statement of foreign policy which proclaimed that Europe should not interfere in affairs within the United States or in the development of other countries in the Western Hemisphere, and that the United States would not interfere in European affairs. These ideas, formulated by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and President James Monroe, were presented in 1823 in response to problems facing the nation: Russian claims to the northwest coast and threats to the independence of Spanish-American republics in Latin America. The doctrine reflected growing American nationalism and increased emphasis on internal improvements which reduced the interest in participating in international affairs. President James K. Polk revived the doctrine in 1845, and it continued as an important part of national ideology into the 20th century.
Naturalized Citizen
A naturalized citizen is a person of foreign birth who is granted full citizenship.
New Jersey Plan
William Paterson's plan for the new government presented to the Constitutional Convention. It favored SMALL states by proposing that the number of representatives in Congress from each state be EQUAL.
Northwest Ordinance
Enacted in 1787, the Northwest Ordinance is considered one of the most significant achievements of the Articles of Confederation. It established a system for setting up governments in the western territories so they could eventually join the Union on an equal footing with the original 13 states. This ordinance referred to the Northwest Territory, an area bounded by the Ohio River, the Mississippi River, and the Great Lakes and included present-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota. When the territory opened, a governor and three judges were appointed by Congress. After 5,000 adult males moved to the area, they could elect an assembly and send a nonvoting delegate to Congress, although the governor retained veto power over the assembly. When 60,000 persons moved into one of the political subdivisions, that area could draft a constitution, submit it to Congress for approval, and become a state. Its constitution had to provide for a representative government, and it had to prohibit slavery.
Nullification Crisis
In 1828, Congress approved a high tariff to protect U.S. interests from competition from foreign trade. This angered southerners who dealt directly with merchants in Britain. The planters favored freedom of trade and believed in the authority of their states over the federal government. In 1832 Congress passed a lower but still protective tariff. Angered South Carolinians, led by Senator John C. Calhoun, declared the federal tariff null and void within its borders. Delegates to a special convention urged the state legislature to take military action and to secede from the union if the federal government demanded the customs duties. To prevent a civil war, Henry Clay, senator from Kentucky, proposed the compromise Tariff of 1833 which gradually reduced the protective tariff over ten years. Southerners accepted the measure but northerners countered with the Force Bill which authorized the president to use the army and navy to collect the duties. The nullifiers repealed the ordinance of nullification but accomplished their goal of reducing the tariff.
Plantation System
The system of farming predominant in the South. Plantations are large estates farmed by many workers. Planters turned to slavery as a means of getting enough laborers to work their plantations.
Popular Sovereignty
Means the people rule and hold the final authority in government. In a large society people exercise their ruling power indirectly by electing public officials to make laws and other government decisions for them.
Powers of the Federal Government
According to the Constitution, the federal (national) government has the following powers: regulate interstate and foreign commerce (trade), armed forces, postal services, policy and treaties with foreign nations, coin money, and declare war.
Preamble
The opening statement of the Constitution. Outlines the 6 goals of the Constitution: form a more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty.
Protective Tariff
Beginning after the War of 1812, Congress passed protective tariffs, or import taxes, to be levied on goods entering the United States from foreign countries. These tariffs were intended to protect American industries from foreign competition by raising the price of foreign goods. While the North favored protective tariffs, the South did not, even threatening to secede over the Tariff of Abominations (the highest ever in US history).
Radical Reconstruction Congress
After the Civil War Radical Republicans favored harsh treatment of the South and quick incorporation of the freemen into citizenship with full privileges including voting rights for all African Americans, government seizure of land from planters for redistribution to freedmen, and funding of schools for African Americans. They also agreed that ex-Confederates were traitors and should not be readily accepted back into the union. Even though Radical Republicans were a minority in the Congress, their arguments gained a following. They questioned why the Civil War had been fought if the South was going to be allowed to return to its antebellum ways. In 1866 and 1867 the radical approach to Reconstruction gained support and Congress was able to pass the Reconstruction Act of 1867. This marked the beginning of Reconstruction. If southern states hoped to rejoin the Union they had to accept the 14th Amendment (the Civil Rights Act of 1866) and they had to rewrite their constitutions so all adult men were able to vote. Beginning in 1867 the Freedmen's Bureau worked to register African-American voters and start schools for African-American children. The southerners were not united in their opposition to Radical Republican rule. Because poorer white farmers were eager to gain some power traditionally held by the planters, they accepted some of the Reconstruction measures. Planters were opposed to most Radical measures because it limited their ability to control society as they had done for generations. The poorer whites and planters were united, however, in their opposition to social equality and that was a major threat the Radical Reconstruction posed. The Ku Klux Klan gained support in 1868 from planters and ex-Confederates. The KKK initially sought to destroy the Republican party in the South. Since the recently franchised African Americans voted Republican, KKK efforts were directed at them. Regardless, throughout the ten years of Radical Reconstruction, African-American legislatures were elected to Congress and sought southern economic and political reform. The Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction. Once federal troops were removed, the enforcement mechanism was gone and southern Democrats returned to governmental control, displacing the Radical Republicans.
Ratify
Means to formally approve. For example, the Constitution had to be ratified by 9 out of the 13 states before it took effect. Constitutional amendments must be ¾ of the states before they are added to the Constitution.
Reconstruction (1867-1877)
In the post-Civil War period, from 1865 to 1877, the United States confronted the problems of re-admitting the southern states to the Union and integrating the freed slaves into society. At the end of the Civil War northern business was prospering due to the increased production required for the war effort and the fact that few battles were fought in that area. In contrast the south was in ruins. To rebuild national strength, the federal government supported the reformation of governments in the former Confederate states which supported the Union. Some congressmen believed the South should be further punished for seceding and that Reconstruction should require the following: voting rights for all African Americans, no voting rights for ex-Confederates, government seizure of land from planters for redistribution to freedmen, and funding of schools for African Americans. Others, including President Abraham Lincoln, believed in a quick healing. When Lincoln was assassinated in 1865, President Andrew Johnson tried to implement similar Reconstruction policies. Yet, many sought the more radical approach. When Congress passed a Civil Rights Act in 1866 which advocated the radical approach, Johnson vetoed it but Congress overrode. Radical Reconstruction gained support and Congress was able to pass the Reconstruction Act of 1867. This marked the beginning of Reconstruction. If southern states hoped to rejoin the federal government they had to accept the 14th Amendment (the Civil Rights Act of 1866) and they had to rewrite their constitutions so all adult men were able to vote. The emancipation of the slaves left thousands of people without work or income. One of the biggest challenges was creating a system to give land to freedmen so they could farm and make a living. This system was never developed. Instead, due to disagreements among northern politicians and a lack of interest on the part of southerners, a solution was never found. Reconstruction ended when President Rutherford B. Hayes passed the Compromise of 1877 which removed the last of the federal troops from the South. When they left, the Reconstruction governments stopped and southerners regained political control. These southerners were known as Redeemers. They favored a return to the ways of the antebellum South including a society based on the superiority of white people. Challenges to the unequal treatment of blacks and women became more united during the civil rights movements and peaked when the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed.
Reform Movements
Efforts to reform society, or change it for the better, took on renewed purpose in the early 19th century as reformers gained confidence in themselves and worked to share their good fortune with others. Factors which increased reform activity included a new surge of religious revivals during the second Great Awakening and the growing abolitionist movement. Reformers believed they could improve society by sharing religion and education with the less fortunate. Upper class men and women in the northeast led the effort. The most powerful reform movements were led by abolitionists and by suffragists. The abolitionist movement gained support during the 1830s and 1840s. At the same time, women realized their position in society needed reforming. The suffrage movement emerged as a result. Abolitionists in the United States sought freedom for African-American slaves while suffragists sought equal rights for women, particularly the right to vote. These efforts to attain civil rights culminated in the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Reformers also strove to correct unfair labor practices; improve living conditions for the poor, the imprisoned, alcoholics, and the disabled; and ensure that education was widely available. Reformers who became frustrated with their attempts to effect change sought refuge in their own utopian societies, ideal communities where they could live by their own standards of conduct.
Removal and Settlement of Native Americans
Land was a valuable commodity in the early 1800s when cotton planters and farmers sought to extend their settlements west and south. The Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw of the south, and the Sauk and Fox, Chippewa, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Wyandot, Shawnee, and Miami of the north were all removed from their native lands and sent to Indian Territory, much of which is in present-day Oklahoma. The removal was not peaceful. The Indians, particularly the Cherokee, attempted to adopt aspects of U.S. society and government. Sequoya, a Cherokee, developed an alphabet. The tribe wrote a constitution, had newspapers and even the Bible in Cherokee. Regardless of the attempts of Indians to assimilate, President Andrew Jackson insisted on the removal of the Indians from the southwest. In 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act which designated public lands in the west for Indian resettlement. In 1832, in response to an appeal by the Cherokee, Chief Justice John Marshall of the Supreme Court declared that it was unconstitutional for the state of Georgia to remove the tribe from their land. The ruling was ignored. Many Indians did not leave peacefully nor was the going easy once they were removed. The Cherokee endured the Trail of Tears, traveling during a harsh winter as refugees.
Representative Government
In a representative government, power is held by the people and exercised through the efforts of representatives elected by those people.
Republic
In large societies, democratic governments are usually republics, in which voters choose representatives to govern for them.
Republicanism
Republicanism is a philosophy of limited government with elected representatives serving at the will of the people. Republicanism says that the only legitimate government is one based on the consent of the governed.
Saratoga
Turning point in the American Revolution occurred when American forces surrounded Burgoyne's army and forced them to surrender. This victory convinced France to join the Americans in the war against the British.
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are descriptions or interpretations prepared by people who were not involved in the events described. Researchers often use primary sources to understand past events but they produce secondary sources. Secondary sources provide useful background material and context for information gained from primary sources.
Sectionalism
Conflict among geographic sections of the nation. Sectionalism in the United States grew during the decades leading up to the Civil War. Disagreements among the North, West, and South erupted over issues such as slavery, internal improvements, and the tariff.
Separation of Powers
System in which each branch of government has its own powers. This separation prevents one part of the government or one person from gaining all the powers of government (and being like a king). Powers of government in the United States are divided between the states and the national government. They are further divided within the national government among three branches: executive (which executes the law), legislative (which makes the law), and judicial (which applies the law).
Southern Economy vs. Northern Economy
The South remained mostly agricultural (growing cotton) while the North became centered more on manufacturing and industry (factories). These differences were largely due to geographic differences (soil and growing season).
Tariff Policies
Governments raise operating funds by levying tariffs or taxes on imported goods. Tariffs place foreign merchants at a disadvantage, making their goods more expensive than domestic (American-made) products. Generally, northern businessmen favored tariffs because the taxes offered some protection from foreign competition. Southern agriculturists opposed tariffs because they were more dependent on foreign goods. Because they sold most of their cotton to foreign merchants, southern cotton growers had foreign credit which they had to use to purchase higher priced foreign goods. Tariffs imposed on certain domestic goods also caused unrest. In 1794 Alexander Hamilton favored taxing whiskey to generate needed revenue. Farmers in western Pennsylvania who distilled their corn into whiskey were angered by the tax because they considered it unfair. They refused to pay the tax. In a show of force, federal troops marched to western Pennsylvania to overthrow the Whiskey Rebellion. By the time they arrived, the angry farmers had disbanded, but the incident proved that the government would enforce laws.
Territorial Acquisitions
At the end of the Revolutionary War in 1783, the United States' borders extended from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. In 1803, the Louisiana Purchase was bought from France, nearly doubling the size of the U.S. Florida was acquired by treaty with Spain in 1819. In 1845, the United States annexed Texas. The Oregon boundary was settled in 1846 at the 49th parallel. In 1848 Mexico ceded the California and New Mexico territories (the Mexican Cession) at the conclusion of the Mexican War. The Gadsden Purchase was made in 1853 in order to build a transcontinental railroad across the southern United States.
Thematic Maps
A thematic map is a map which demonstrates a particular feature or a single item of interest. For instance, thematic maps can show spatial distributions of population, religion, or cattle production. Four types of thematic maps are: Dot maps Choropleth maps Proportional symbol maps Isoline maps
Three Branches of Government
Baron de Montesquieu first outlined the concept of separating the powers of government between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches in The Spirit of the Laws (1748). His ideas influenced the founding fathers who proposed the Virginia Plan in the opening discussion of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. Delegates modified the Virginia Plan, merged it with the New Jersey Plan proposed later, and conferred names on the three branches. The three included the legislative branch know as "Congress" which included a "House of Representatives" and a "Senate," the executive branch known as the "President," and the judicial branch known as the "Supreme Court." The convention agreed that Congress, which makes laws, would consist of an equal number of senators from each state and a variable number of representatives from each state based on population. The President would lead the executive branch, which enforces the laws. The judicial branch, consisting of all courts of the United States including the highest court, the Supreme Court, would interpret and apply the laws, ensuring that they are just. The founding fathers felt this offered protection to citizens.
Three-Fifths Compromise
An agreement of delegates to the Constitutional Convention that three-fifths of the slaves in any state be counted in that state's population for the purpose of determining the number of representatives in the House of Representatives.
Trail of Tears
Under President Jackson, the Cherokee Indians were removed from their lands in Georgia to Indian Territory (Oklahoma). Their long journey by foot, during which many of them died, is known as the Trail of Tears. Indian removal was initiated by the state of Georgia, which desired the Cherokee lands for growing cotton as well as a small gold rush. The Cherokee, under the leadership of John Ross, took their case all the way to the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Indians had a right to their lands because of a treaty signed by the federal government. President Jackson refused to enforce the court's decision, however, and the Cherokees were forced to move.
Treaty of Paris, 1783
Ended the American Revolution. In it, Britain recognized the United States as an independent nation, with borders stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River.
U.S. Constitution
A constitution is a document that outlines the powers of government. One of the foundations of the American system of government is the use of a written constitution defining the values and principles of government and establishing the limits of power. The U.S. Constitution evolved from the Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781. The Articles established a national congress with a limited number of powers including the authority to make laws and enter into treaties with other nations. By 1787 a new system was needed as states were acting independently, and Congress lacked the power to tax, regulate trade, or control coinage, issues critical for the survival of a new nation of united states. Congress announced a call for delegates to a convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising" the Articles of Confederation. The Philadelphia Convention began in the Pennsylvania State House, now called Independence Hall, on May 25, 1787. Fifty-five delegates from 12 of the 13 states participated. The more daring quickly overstepped the intended goal of the convention by proposing plans to replace the old Articles. James Madison formulated many of the ideas included in the Constitution and is known as the "Father of the Constitution." He proposed that the U.S. government be organized in three branches: a legislative branch (Congress), an executive branch (the President) and a judicial branch (Supreme Court). The "Great Compromise" related to representation of states in the federal government. Delegates engaged in heated debate but finally agreed that legislative power should rest in a two-house Congress, the House of Representatives including delegates from each state based on population, and the Senate including an equal number of elected delegates from each state. Article II outlined the executive department and the powers of the President within that branch. This new form of government distributed the power between a central government and the states, a system called federalism. Other compromises made during the drafting process included the establishment of an Electoral College to elect the president indirectly instead of by direct election, and the "three-fifths compromise" which counted slaves as three-fifths of a person when apportioning direct taxes or counting representation in the House of Representatives. Another compromise related to the slave trade which the convention agreed to end in 1807. Article VII, Ratification of the Constitution, outlined the process which required nine states to approve the U.S. Constitution. The process fostered one of the great debates of American history. The Federalists, who favored a strong central government, supported the Constitution while the Anti-Federalists favored states' rights and the protection of individual rights through a Bill of Rights. They opposed ratification. Madison worked with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay to write The Federalist calling for ratification. Delegates elected to state conventions determined the outcome. The first nine states approved the constitution between December 1787 and June 1788. The last four states ratified out of fear of exclusion, believing they could not exist separate from the union. Rhode Island was the last to ratify in May 1790. The Framers of the Constitution understood that society would change over time, and made provisions for amendments to be formally proposed and ratified by both the state and federal governments. In the last 200 years, there have been 27 amendments to the Constitution, including the Bill of Rights. Informal amendments to the Constitution keep the government up-to-date without formal modifications to the document, such as Court decisions (Roe v. Wade), legislation (commerce laws), executive actions (the President's cabinet), and customs (Democrat/Republican parties). Article V, The Process of Amendment, outlines the ways to keep the Constitution current. The first Congress proposed the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments, which protected basic human rights and freedoms. This pleased Anti-Federalists who felt the original document did not extend adequate protection. The power of judicial review, first assumed by the U.S. Supreme Court in Marbury v. Madison, allows the federal judicial branch to rule on issues of constitutional law including civil liberties, suspect's rights, equality, women's rights, minority rights, foreign policy, and constitutional change. Through the process of amendment and judicial review, the Constitution is adapted to the needs of each generation of Americans.
Unalienable Rights
According to the Declaration of Independence, all men are endowed (given) by their creator certain rights that cannot rightly be taken from them without due process (going to trial). Among these are LIFE, LIBERTY, and the PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS. Thomas Jefferson borrowed the idea of unalienable rights from John Locke.
Urbanization
The process of people migrating to cities away from rural (country) areas. As industry grew in the North, more and more people lived in cities in order to be near factory jobs.
Virginia House of Burgesses
Created in 1619, the House of Burgesses was an assembly of elected representatives from the Virginia colony. It was the first representative assembly in the colonies, and it was used as a model by other colonies. The House of Burgesses met in Williamsburg, Virginia, throughout the colonial period.
Virginia Plan
Plan of government presented by Edmund Randolph and James Madison to the Constitutional Convention. It favored LARGE states by proposing a two-house legislature in which the number of representatives from each state would be PROPORTIONAL to the state's POPULATION.
War of 1812
Often described as the Second War for Independence, the War of 1812 resulted from the need to protect and further the republican experiment in the United States through an effort to make European powers respect U.S. policies. The United States was drawn into the War of 1812 because of economic ties to the warring nations of Great Britain and France. These two nations paid little attention to the rights of the United States to trade and the rights of its citizens to remain neutral in the war. As the British fought the French in the Napoleonic Wars, both committed maritime offenses against the U.S., slowing trade, indiscriminately seizing U.S. ships, and impressing Americans to serve in their forces. The economy of the United States suffered due to self-imposed restrictions on trade with Great Britain and France, enacted by President Thomas Jefferson in the Embargo of 1807 and by President James Madison in the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809. In the western territories, settlers blamed the British for the problems with the Native Americans. President James Madison asked the U.S. Congress to declare war on Great Britain and it did so on June 18, 1812. The three main reasons for war included: the impressment of U.S. sailors, violations of U.S. rights at sea, and British support of Native American opposition to colonial settlement. In 1812 and 1813, the United States attempted to seize Canada as part of the strategy to reduce the dominance of Great Britain and force the nation to recognize the United
States and abide by its foreign policies. After the defeat of Napoleon in mid-1814, the British became more aggressive toward the United States. The British invaded several ports and set fire to government buildings, including the White House in Washington, D.C., in reprisal for the raids in Canada. The Treaty of Ghent, signed in late December 1814, ended the war. The famous Battle of New Orleans occurred two weeks later on January 8, 1815. Andrew Jackson won public recognition for defending the city from the superior forces of the British. He was elected and served two terms as President of the United States from 1829 to 1837.
Washington's Farewell Address
In 1796 George Washington decided not to pursue a third term as president of the United States, thereby allowing the election of a successor. His farewell address to his cabinet, delivered on September 17, was published in a Philadelphia newspaper on September 19. In it, he stressed three dangers facing the nation. The first related to the rise of political parties which he believed could divide Americans and destroy the cooperation needed in government. The second was sectionalism, or political divisions based on geographic loyalties. The third was the involvement in European rivalries that repeatedly drove those nations to war. The last served as a cornerstone of American foreign policy until this country's involvement in World War I. He also supported the preservation of religion and morality as "the great pillars of human happiness" and educational institutions for the "general diffusion of knowledge."
Westward Movement
The first British and French settlements in North America were on the east coast. The lands to the west lured explorers, farmers, businessmen and others interested in expanding the United States. Many issues made the westward movement of people and business difficult. Native Americans slowed settlement as they fought to preserve their homes and hunting grounds. States and nations disputed boundaries. Some politicians in the United States favored annexing Texas because it would limit the involvement of Britain in that area. Others feared conflicts with Mexico over control of the territory. The Mexican War (1846-1848) settled the dispute. In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico recognized Texas as a state and gave up any claims to the territory. Also in the 1840s President Polk and others were interested in settling Oregon to guarantee control of North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans. Many believed this was the "manifest destiny" of the United States. Polk attempted to declare the parallel of 54°40' as the northern boundary of the United States but Britain refused. The nations compromised in 1846 by dividing Oregon Country and establishing the 49th parallel as the northern border of the United States and the southern border of Canada extending from the Great Lakes to the Pacific
Yorktown
Last major battle of the American Revolution. Washington and Lafayette, with the help of the French fleet, trapped Cornwallis' army and forced him to surrender.
